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T mazes
The T-maze is a sort of maze used in maze learning experiments. It is used in animal cognition experiments.Olton, D.S. (1979). Mazes, maps, and memory. American Psychologist, 34, 583-596). and is shaped like the letter T, providing the subject, typically a rat, with a straightforward choice. A test subject is placed at the base of the T. It must then decide whether to go left or right down either arm. Experimenters may place a reward in one arm of the maze, or different rewards may be placed in each arm. The subject may or may not be able to see what's at the end of the arm. In some cases, choosing to travel down one arm requires passing through a door which does not allow backtracking. T-mazes can help researchers measure whether the test subjects have side preferences, alternate between choices, learn which side has a consistent outcome, or whether they have preferences between two options presented. Researchers have demonstrated that earthworms and other invertebrates are capable of having preferences in a T maze.Yerkes, R.M. (1912) The intelligence of earthworms. Journal of Animal Behavior, 2, 332-352 A multiple T-maze is a complex maze made of many T-junctions. Factors in maze design Uses of the maze ----- See also *Y mazes References & Bibliography Further reading Key texts Books Papers *Blodgett, H. C., & McCutchan, K. (1947). Place versus response learning in the simple T-maze: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 37(5) Oct 1947, 412-422. *Blodgett, H. C., & McCutchan, K. (1948). Relative strength of place and response learning in the T maze: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 41(1) Feb 1948, 17-24. *Blodgett, H. C., McCutchan, K., & Mathews, R. (1949). Spatial learning in the T-maze: the influence of direction, turn, and food location: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 39(6) Dec 1949, 800-809. *Brody, A. L. (1965). Nonreinforcement in a noncorrection T maze: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 60(3) Dec 1965, 428-431. *Broom, S. L. (2003). Performance on a t-maze task as a predictor of behavioral response in the chick social separation-stress paradigm. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Brown, W. L. (1946). The effects of a common start-finish locus on orientation and behavior in a multiple-T maze: Journal of Comparative Psychology Vol 39(6) Dec 1946, 331-338. *Bush, R. R., & Wilson, T. R. (1956). Two-choice behavior of paradise fish: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 51(5) May 1956, 315-322. *Capaldi, E. J., Alptekin, S., Miller, D. J., & Barry, K. (1992). The role of instrumental responses in memory retrieval in a T-maze: The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology B: Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 45B(1) Jul 1992, 65-76. *Carvalho-Netto, E. F., & Nunes-de-Souza, R. L. (2004). Use of the elevated T-maze to study anxiety in mice: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 148(1-2) Jan 2004, 119-132. *Christian, B., McConnaughey, K., Bethea, E., Brantley, S., Coffey, A., Hammond, L., et al. (2004). Chronic aspartame affects T-maze performance, brain cholinergic receptors and Na-super(+),K-super(+)-ATPase in rats: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 78(1) May 2004, 121-127. *Clark, J. W., & Miller, S. B. (1966). The development of rapid running in T-mazes in the absence of obvious rewards: Psychonomic Science Vol 4(3) 1966, 127-128. *Clayton, K. N. (1964). T-maze choice learning as a joint function of the reward magnitudes for the alternatives: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 58(3) Dec 1964, 333-338. *Cohen, J., Westlake, K., & Szelest, I. (2004). Effects of runway shift and stay rules on rats' serial pattern learning in the T-maze: Learning & Behavior Vol 32(4) Nov 2004, 500-511. *Cotton, J. W., & Jensen, G. D. (1963). Successive acquisitions and extinctions in a T maze: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 65(6) Jun 1963, 546-551. *Cotton, J. W., Jensen, G. D., & Lewis, D. J. (1962). Spontaneous recovery interval as a factor in reacquisition of T maze behavior: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 63(6) Jun 1962, 555-562. *Cotton, J. W., Jensen, G. D., & Lewis, D. J. (1963). Spontaneous recovery interval as a factor in reacquisition of T maze behavior: Erratum: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 66(6) Dec 1963, 600. *Cotton, J. W., Lewis, D. J., & Jensen, G. D. (1959). Partial reinforcement effects in a T maze: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 52(6) Dec 1959, 730-733. *Dember, W. N., Sherrick, M. F., & Harris, R. P., Jr. (1966). Trial-two goal arm alternation to orientation of trial-one starting stem: Psychonomic Science Vol 6(1) 1966, 31-32. *Denny, M. R. (1979). Long delay learning in a T-maze: Academic Psychology Bulletin Vol 1(2) Nov 1979, 135-142. *Dudchenko, P. A. (2001). How do animals actually solve the T maze? : Behavioral Neuroscience Vol 115(4) Aug 2001, 850-860. *Dudchenko, P. A., & Davidson, M. (2002). Rats use a sense of direction to alternate on T-mazes located in adjacent rooms: Animal Cognition Vol 5(2) Jun 2002, 115-118. *Gleitman, H., & Herman, M. M. (1962). Replication report: Latent learning in a T maze after shock in one end box: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 64(6) Dec 1962, 646. *Heird, J. C., Lokey, C. E., & Cogan, D. C. (1986). Repeatability and comparison of two maze tests to measure learning ability in horses: Applied Animal Behaviour Science Vol 16(2) Sep 1986, 103-119. *Hill, W. F., Cotton, J. W., & Clayton, K. N. (1962). Effect of reward magnitude, percentage of reinforcement, and training method on acquisition and reversal in a T maze: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 64(1) Jul 1962, 81-86. *Hill, W. F., Cotton, J. W., & Clayton, K. N. (1963). Effect of rewarded and nonrewarded incorrect trials on T maze learning: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 56(3) Jun 1963, 489-496. *Hill, W. F., & Spear, N. E. (1963). Choice between magnitudes of reward in a T maze: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 56(4) Aug 1963, 723-726. *Hill, W. F., & Spear, N. E. (1963). A replication of overlearning and reversal in a T maze: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 65(3) Mar 1963, 317. *Hill, W. F., Spear, N. E., & Clayton, K. N. (1962). T maze reversal learning after several different overtraining procedures: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 64(5) Nov 1962, 533-540. Additional material Papers *Google Scholar *Andrade, T. G. C. S., Macedo, C. E. A., Zangrossi, H., Jr., & Graeff, F. G. (2004). Anxiolytic-like effects of median raphe nucleus lesion in the elevated T-maze: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 153(1) Aug 2004, 55-60. *Ball, G. G., & Adams, D. W. (1965). Intracranial stimulation as an avoidance or escape response: Psychonomic Science Vol 3(1) 1965, 39-40. *Bardgett, M. E., Depenbrock, M., Downs, N., Points, M., & Green, L. (2009). Dopamine modulates effort-based decision making in rats: Behavioral Neuroscience Vol 123(2) Apr 2009, 242-251. *Bertoglio, L. J., & Zangrossi Jr, H. (2006). Involvement of dorsolateral periaqueductal gray N-methyl-D-aspartic acid glutamate receptors in the regulation of risk assessment and inhibitory avoidance behaviors in the rat elevated T-maze: Behavioural Pharmacology Vol 17(7) Nov 2006, 589-596. *Bertoglio, L. J., & Zangrossi Jr, H. (2006). "Involvement of dorsolateral periaqueductal gray N-methyl-D-aspartic acid glutamate receptors in the regulation of risk-assessment and inhibitory avoidance behaviors in the rat elevated T-maze": Erratum: Behavioural Pharmacology Vol 17(8) Dec 2006, 737. *Bloch, S., & Silva, A. (1959). 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Prior electrical stimulation of dorsal periaqueductal grey matter or deep layers of the superior colliculus sensitizes rats to anxiety-like behaviors in the elevated T-maze test: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 170(2) May 2006, 175-181. *de Bortoli, V. C., Junior, H. Z., de Aguiar Correa, F. M., de Sousa Almeida, S., & de Oliveira, A. M. (2005). Inhibitory avoidance memory retention in the elevated T-maze is impaired after perivascular manipulation of the common carotid arteries: Life Sciences Vol 76(18) Mar 2005, 2103-2114. *Demas, G. E., Nelson, R. J., Krueger, B. K., & Yarowsky, P. J. (1996). Spatial memory deficits in segmental trisomic Ts65Dn mice: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 82(1) Dec 1996, 85-92. *Dember, W. N. (1960). Replication report: Alternation following exposure without choice: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 60(1) Jul 1960, 64. *Denny, M. R., & Adelman, H. M. (1955). Elicitation theory: I. An analysis of two typical learning situations: Psychological Review Vol 62(4) Jul 1955, 290-296. *Douglas, R. J., & Isaacson, R. L. (1965). Homogeneity of single trial response tendencies and spontaneous alternation in the T-maze: Psychological Reports 16(1) 1965, 87-92. *Duzzioni, M., Calixto, A. V., Duarte, F. S., & De Lima, T. C. M. (2008). Modulation of anxiety in rats evaluated in the elevated T-maze: Evidence of the relationship between substance P and diazepam: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 187(1) Feb 2008, 140-145. *Earley, C. J., & Leonard, B. E. (1978). Behavioral studies on the effects of d-amphetamine and estradiol benzoate alone and in combination: Psychopharmacology Vol 56(2) 1978, 179-183. *Echeverry, M. B., Hasenohrl, R. U., Huston, J. P., & Tomaz, C. (2001). Comparison of neurokinin SP with diazepam in effects on memory and fear parameters in the elevated T-maze free exploration paradigm: Peptides Vol 22(7) Jul 2001, 1031-1036. *Egger, G. J. (1973). Novelty induced changes in spontaneous alternation by infant and adult rats: Developmental Psychobiology Vol 6(5) Sep 1973, 431-435. *Ellis, N. C., & Arnoult, M. D. (1965). Novelty as a determinant of spontaneous alternation in children: Psychonomic Science Vol 2(6) 1965, 163-164. *Emmanouil, D. E., Johnson, C. H., & Quock, R. M. (1994). Nitrous oxide anxiolytic effect in mice in the elevated plus maze: Mediation by benzodiazepine receptors: Psychopharmacology Vol 115(1-2) Jun 1994, 167-172. *Essman, W. B. (1965). Behavioral bioassay for experimentally induced uremic endotoxemia in rats: Perceptual and Motor Skills 20(1) 1965, 115-120. *Evans, S. M. (1963). Behavior of the polychaete Nereis in T-mazes: Animal Behaviour 11(2 & 3) 1963, 379-392. *Fey, C. F. (1961). An investigation of some mathematical models for learning: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 61(6) Jun 1961, 455-461. *Flint, P. (1965). The effect of sensory deprivation on the behaviour of the polychaete Nereis in T-mazes: Animal Behaviour 13(1) 1965, 187-193. *Fowler, H., Fowler, D. E., & Dember, W. N. (1959). The influence of reward on alternation behavior: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 52(2) Apr 1959, 220-224. *Galanter, E., & Shaw, W. A. (1954). "Cue' vs. "reactive inhibition' in place and response learning: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 47(5) Oct 1954, 395-398. *Gengerelli, J. A. (1930). An experiment on the natural preference of rats for right and left turns: Journal of Comparative Psychology Vol 10(3) Jun 1930, 263-265. *Gentry, G., Brown, W. L., & Lee, H. (1948). Spatial location in the learning of a multiple-T maze: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 41(5) Oct 1948, 312-318. *Glanzer, M. (1958). Stimulus satiation in situations without choice: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 51(3) Jun 1958, 332-335. *Gouveia, A., Jr., dos Santos, U. D., Felisbino, F. E., de Afonseca, T. L., Antunes, G., & Morato, S. (2004). Influence of the estrous cycle on the behavior of rats in the elevated T-maze: Behavioural Processes Vol 67(2) Sep 2004, 167-171. *Graves, E. A. (1936). Interrelationships in performances in the albino rat: Journal of Comparative Psychology Vol 22(1) Aug 1936, 179-186. *Greenberg, G. (1973). Replication report: No spontaneous alternation in gerbils: Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society Vol 1(2) Feb 1973, 141-142. *Hall, R. D., & Kling, J. W. (1960). Amount of consummatory activity and performance in a modified T-maze: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 53(2) Apr 1960, 165-168. *Hamill, R. (1931). Sequence of turns versus distance as essential pattern-elements in the maze problem: Journal of Comparative Psychology Vol 11(4) Apr 1931, 367-382. *Hill, W. F. (1961). Effects of activity deprivation on choice of an activity incentive: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 54(1) Feb 1961, 78-82. *Hogan, J. A. (1974). On the choice between eating and aggressive display in the Siamese fighting fish (Beta splendens): Learning and Motivation Vol 5(3) Aug 1974, 273-287. *Holman, E. W. (1966). Tests for spontaneous alternation: Psychological Review Vol 73(5) Sep 1966, 427-436. *Honzik, C. H. (1933). Cerebral control in the maze learning of rats: Journal of Comparative Psychology Vol 15(1) Feb 1933, 95-132. *Hughes, D., Davis, J. D., & Grice, G. R. (1960). Goal box and alley similarity as a factor in latent extinction: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 53(6) Dec 1960, 612-614. *Hughes, L. H. (1957). Saccharine reinforcement in a T maze: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 50(5) Oct 1957, 431-435. *Hurder, W. P. (1951). Changes in maze performance in rats following exposure to anoxia: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 44(5) Oct 1951, 473-478. *Ison, J. R., & Birch, D. (1961). T-maze reversal following differential endbox placement: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 62(2) Aug 1961, 200-202. *Jardim, M. C., Nogueira, R. L., Graeff, F. G., & Nunes-de-Souza, R. L. (1999). Evaluation of the elevated T-maze as an animal model of anxiety in the mouse: Brain Research Bulletin Vol 48(4) Mar 1999, 407-411. *Jones, L. C. (1980). Taste aversion conditioning and T-maze behaviour: Dissertation Abstracts International. *Jones, R. B., Marin, R. H., Garcia, D. A., & Arce, A. (1999). T-maze behaviour in domestic chicks: A search for underlying variables: Animal Behaviour Vol 58(1) Jul 1999, 211-217. *Kataoka, Y., & Komatsu, I. (1973). 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Evidence of population-level lateralized behaviour in giant water bugs, Belostoma flumineum Say (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae): T-maze turning is left biased: Behavioural Processes Vol 79(1) Sep 2008, 66-69. *Kintz, B. L., Delprato, D. J., Mettee, D. R., Persons, C. E., & Schappe, R. H. (1965). The Experimenter as a Discriminiative Stimulus in A T-Maze: Psychological Record Vol 15(3) Jul 1965, 449-454. *Kirby, B. P., & Rawlins, J. N. P. (2003). The role of the septo-hippocampal cholinergic projection in T-maze rewarded alternation: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 143(1) Jul 2003, 41-48. *Kivy, P. N., Earl, R. W., & Walker, E. L. (1956). Stimulus context and satiation: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 49(1) Feb 1956, 90-92. *Knapp, R. K., Kause, R. H., & Perkins, C. C., Jr. (1959). Immediate vs. delayed shock in T-maze performance: Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 58(5) Nov 1959, 357-362. *Le Marec, N., Ethier, K., Rompre, P. P., & Godbout, R. (2002). Involvement of the medial prefrontal cortex in two alternation tasks using different environments: Brain and Cognition Vol 48(2-3) Mar-Apr 2002, 432-436. *Leite Silveira, M. C., Zangrossi, H., Jr., de Barros Viana, M., Silveira, R., & Guiherme Graeff, F. (2001). Differential expression of Fos protein in the rat brain induced by performance of avoidance or escape in the elevated T-maze: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 126(1-2) Nov 2001, 13-21. *Lewis, D. J., & Cotton, J. W. (1958). Partial reinforcement and nonresponse acquisition: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 51(2) Apr 1958, 251-254. *Lewis, M. (1965). Effect of effort on choice: Value of a secondary reinforcer: Psychological Reports 16(2) 1965, 557-560. *Littman, R. A. (1950). Latent learning in a T-maze after two degrees of training: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 43(2) Apr 1950, 135-147. *Lukaszweska, I. (1997). 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